| Volume 53 Number 3
2005 |
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Editors, Editorial Board, Consulting Editors
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| Special Issue |
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Research on Cognitive Load Theory and Its
Design Implications for E-Learning
Jeroen J. G. van Merriënboer
Paul Ayres
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This introduction to the special issue provides
a context for the contributing articles. for
readers who are not familiar with cognitive
load theory (CLT), it provides a very brief
description of assumptions regarding memory
systems and learning processes, different types
of cognitive load (intrinsic, extraneous, and
germane), and design implications. Whereas
traditional CLT research focused on
instructional methods to decrease extraneous
cognitive load that is not directly relevant for
learning, contributions to this special issue
represent wider perspectives that reflect new
developments in CLT. These articles have been
organized into three categories: (a) methods to
decrease intrinsic cognitive load, and deal with
high-element interactivity materials, (b)
methods to increase germane cognitive load
that is directly relevant for learning, and (c)
methods to deal with differences in learner’s
individual levels of expertise and expertise
development. To conclude, design implications
for (adaptive) e-learning are discussed. |
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The Impact of Sequencing and Prior
Knowledge on Learning Mathematics Through
Spreadsheet Applications
Tracey Clarke
Paul Ayres
John Sweller |
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According to cognitive load theory,
instruction needs to be designed in a manner
that facilitates the acquisition of knowledge in
long-term memory while reducing
unnecessary demands on working memory.
When technology is used to deliver
instruction, the sequence in which students
learn to use the technology and learn the
relevant subject matter may have cognitive
load implications, and should interact with
their prior knowledge levels. An experiment,
using spreadsheets to assist student learning
of mathematics, indicated that for students
with little knowledge of spreadsheets,
sequential instruction on spreadsheets
followed by mathematics instruction was
superior to a concurrent presentation. The
reverse was found for students with more
knowledge of spreadsheets. These results are
explained in terms of cognitive load theory. |
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A Motivational Perspective on the Relation
Between Mental Effort and Performance:
Optimizing Learner Involvement in Instruction
Fred Paas
Juhani E. Tuovinen
Jeroen J. G. van Merriënboer
A. Aubteen Darabi |
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Motivation can be identified as a dimension
that determines learning success and causes
the high dropout rate among online learners,
especially in complex e-learning environments.
It is argued that these learning environments
represent a new challenge to cognitive load
researchers to investigate the motivational
effects of instructional conditions and help
instructional designers to predict which
instructional configurations will maximize
learning and transfer. Consistent with the
efficiency perspective introduced by Paas and
Van Merriënboer (1993), an alternative
motivational perspective of the relation
between mental effort and performance is
presented. We propose a procedure to compute
and visualize the differential effects of
instructional conditions on learner motivation,
and illustrate this procedure on the basis of an
existing data set. Theoretical and practical
implications of the motivational perspective
are discussed. |
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Cognitive Load and Learning Effects of
Having Students Organize Pictures and Words
in Multimedia Environments: The Role of
Student Interactivity and Feedback
Roxana Moreno
Alfred Valdez |
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The cognitive load and learning effects of
dual-code and interactivity—two multimedia
methods intended to promote meaningful
learning—were examined. In Experiment 1,
college students learned about the causal chain
of events leading to the process of lightning
formation with a set of words and
corresponding pictures (Group WP), pictures
(Group P), or words (Group W). Some
students were presented with the organized
causal chain of events to study, whereas others
were given a self-organization task. Consistent
with a cognitive theory of multimedia
learning, Condition WP was the highest in
instructional efficiency for retention and
transfer. However, contrary to our predictions,
having students organize the multimedia
materials was detrimental to transfer. Two
follow-up experiments tested the hypotheses
that the negative effects of interactivity were
due to students’ lack of time control
(Experiment 2) and the form of feedback
(Experiment 3). The findings showed that
interactivity was effective when students were
asked to evaluate their answers before
receiving corrective feedback from the system. |
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Enabling, Facilitating, and Inhibiting Effects of
Animations in Multimedia Learning: Why
Reduction of Cognitive Load Can Have
Negative Results on Learning
Wolfgang Schnotz
Thorsten Rasch |
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New technologies allow the display of text,
static visuals, and animations. Although
animations are inherently attractive, they are
not always beneficial for learning. Problems
may arise especially when animations modify
the learner’s cognitive load in an unintended
way. In two learning experiments with 40 and
26 university students, the effects of animated
pictures on knowledge acquisition were
investigated. Some pictures displayed visual
simulations of changes over time, whereas
other pictures could be manipulated by
learners to represent different states in time.
Results showed that manipulation pictures
had an enabling function for individuals with
high learning prerequisites, whereas
simulation pictures had a facilitating function
for individuals with low learning
prerequisites. However, the facilitating
function was not beneficial for learning,
because learners were prevented from
performing relevant cognitive processes on
their own. A careful analysis of the
interrelation between different kinds of
cognitive load and the process of learning is
therefore required. |
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The Function of Annotations in the
Comprehension of Scientific Texts: Cognitive
Load Effects and the Impact of Verbal Ability
Erik Wallen
Jan L. Plass
Roland Brünken |
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Students participated in a study (n = 98)
investigating the effectiveness of three types of
annotations on three learning outcome
measures. The annotations were designed to
support the cognitive processes in the
comprehension of scientific texts, with a
function to aid either the process of selecting
relevant information, organizing the
information in memory, or integrating
information with prior knowledge. Learning
outcomes were measured by assessing student
recall of facts, comprehension of the text, and
mental model construction. Results show that
different types of annotations facilitate
different learning outcomes. In addition, we
found that, compared to having only one type
of annotation available, multiple types of
annotations resulted in a higher cognitive load
that resulted in lower performance, especially
in tests of higher-level processing. This effect
was stronger for low-verbal-ability learners,
who showed lower performance in treatments
with multiple types of annotations than
high-verbal-ability learners. |
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Instructional Design for Advanced Learners:
Establishing Connections Between the
Theoretical Frameworks of Cognitive Load
and Deliberate Practice
Tamara van Gog
K. Anders Ericsson
Remy M. J. P. Rikers
Fred Paas |
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Cognitive load theory (CLT) has been
successful in identifying instructional formats
that are more effective and efficient than
conventional problem solving in the initial,
novice phase of skill acquisition. However,
recent findings regarding the “expertise
reversal effect” have begun to stimulate
cognitive load theorists to broaden their
horizon to the question of how instructional
design should be altered as a learner’s
knowledge increases. To answer this question,
it is important to understand how expertise is
acquired and what fosters its development.
Expert performance research, and, in
particular, the theoretical framework of
deliberate practice have given us a better
understanding of the principles and activities
that are essential in order to excel in a domain.
This article explores how these activities and
principles can be used to design instructional
formats based on CLT for higher levels of skills
mastery. The value of these formats for
e-learning environments in which learning
tasks can be adaptively selected on the basis of
online assessments of the learner’s level of
expertise is discussed. |
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Rapid Dynamic Assessment of Expertise to
Improve the Efficiency of Adaptive E-learning
Slava Kalyuga
John Sweller |
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In this article we suggest a method of
evaluating learner expertise based on
assessment of the content of working memory
and the extent to which cognitive load has been
reduced by knowledge retrieved from
long-term memory. The method was tested in
an experiment with an elementary algebra
tutor using a yoked control design. In the
learner-adapted experimental group,
instruction was dynamically tailored to
changing levels of expertise using rapid tests
of knowledge combined with measures of
cognitive load. In the nonadapted control
group, each learner was exposed to exactly the
same instructional procedures as those
experienced by the learner’s yoked participant.
The experimental group demonstrated higher
knowledge and cognitive efficiency gains than
the control group. |
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Research on Cognitive Load Theory:
Application to E-Learning
Gary R. Morrison
Gary J. Anglin |
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The purpose of this article is to review and
critique each of the research studies published
in this special issue. We will critique each
article, derive one or more instructional design
heuristics based on the findings for each study,
and provide recommendations for extending
particular lines of research. Three suggestions
are provided concerning cognitive load theory
and instructional design adaptations for
e-learning. |
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| Departments
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BOOK REVIEW
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Linda Lohr, Editor
Curriculum, Plans, and Processes in
Instructional Design: International
Perspectives.
Norbert M. Seel and Sanne
Dijkstra, Eds. (2004). |
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INTERNATIONAL REVIEW
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Abbas Johari, Editor
Democratic Technology Advancement
for All: Contrasting views of American
and International Students
By Nick Eastmond and Joanne P. H. Bentley |
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